Philosopher,
theologian,
doctor of the Church (
Angelicus Doctor),
patron of
Catholic universities,
colleges, and
schools. Born at Rocca Secca in the
Kingdom of Naples, 1225 or 1227; died at Fossa Nuova, 7 March, 1274.
Life
The great outlines and all the important events of his life are
known, but biographers differ as to some details and
dates. Death prevented
Henry Denifle from executing his project of writing a critical life of the
saint.
Denifle's friend and pupil, Dominic Prümmer, O.P., professor of
theology in the
University of Fribourg, Switzerland, took up the work and published the "Fontes Vitae S. Thomae Aquinatis, notis historicis et criticis illustrati"; and the first fascicle (Toulouse, 1911) has appeared, giving the life of St. Thomas by Peter Calo (1300) now published for the first time. From
Tolomeo of Lucca . . . we learn that at the time of the
saint's death there was a
doubt about his exact age (Prümmer, op. cit., 45). The end of 1225 is usually assigned as the
time of his birth. Father Prümmer, on the authority of Calo, thinks 1227 is the more probable
date (op. cit., 28). All agree that he died in 1274.
Landulph, his
father, was Count of
Aquino; Theodora, his mother, Countess of Teano. His
family was related to the Emperors
Henry VI and
Frederick II, and to the Kings of
Aragon,
Castile, and
France. Calo relates that a
holy hermit foretold his career, saying to Theodora before his birth: "He will enter the
Order of Friars Preachers, and so great will be his learning and
sanctity that in his day no one will be found to equal him" (Prümmer, op. cit., 18). At the age of five, according to the
custom of the times, he was sent to receive his first training from the
Benedictine monks of
Monte Cassino. Diligent in study, he was thus early noted as being meditative and devoted to
prayer, and his preceptor was surprised at hearing the child ask frequently: "What is
God?"
About the year 1236 he was sent to the University of
Naples. Calo says that the change was made at the instance of the
Abbot of
Monte Cassino, who wrote to Thomas's father that a boy of such talents should not be left in obscurity (Prümmcr, op. cit., 20). At
Naples his preceptors were Pietro Martini and Petrus Hibernus. The chronicler says that he soon surpassed Martini at grammar, and he was then given over to Peter of Ireland, who trained him in
logic and the
natural sciences. The customs of the times divided the
liberal arts into two courses: the Trivium, embracing grammar,
logic, and rhetoric; the Quadrivium, comprising music, mathematics, geometry, and
astronomy . . . . Thomas could repeat the lessons with more depth and lucidity than his masters displayed. The youth's heart had remained pure amidst the corruption with which he was surrounded, and he resolved to embrace the
religious life.
Some
time between 1240 and August, 1243, he received the habit of the
Order of St. Dominic, being attracted and directed by John of St. Julian, a noted preacher of the
convent of
Naples. The city wondered that such a noble young man should don the garb of
poor friar. His mother, with mingled feelings of
joy and sorrow, hastened to
Naples to see her son. The
Dominicans, fearing she would take him away, sent him to
Rome, his ultimate destination being
Paris or
Cologne. At the instance of Theodora, Thomas's brothers, who were soldiers under the
Emperor Frederick, captured the
novice near the town of
Aquapendente and confined him in the fortress of San Giovanni at Rocca Secca. Here he was detained nearly two years, his
parents, brothers, and sisters endeavouring by various means to destroy his
vocation. The brothers even laid snares for his
virtue, but the pure-minded
novice drove the temptress from his room with a brand which he snatched from the fire. Towards the end of his life,
St. Thomas confided to his faithful friend and companion,
Reginald of Piperno, the secret of a remarkable favour received at this
time. When the temptress had been driven from his chamber, he
knelt and most earnestly implored
God to grant him integrity of
mind and body. He fell into a gentle sleep, and, as he slept, two
angels appeared to assure him that his
prayer had been heard. They then girded him about with a white girdle, saying: "We gird thee with the girdle of perpetual
virginity." And from that day forward he never experienced the slightest motions of
concupiscence.
The
time spent in captivity was not lost. His mother relented somewhat, after the first burst of
anger and grief; the
Dominicans were allowed to provide him with new habits, and through the kind offices of his sister he procured some books — the
Holy Scriptures,
Aristotle's Metaphysics, and the "Sentences" of
Peter Lombard. After eighteen months or two years spent in
prison, either because his mother saw that the
hermit's prophecy would eventually be fulfilled or because his brothers
feared the threats of
Innocent IV and
Frederick II, he was set at liberty, being lowered in a basket into the arms of the
Dominicans, who were delighted to find that during his captivity "he had made as much progress as if he had been in a
studium generale" (Calo, op. cit., 24).
Thomas immediately pronounced his
vows, and his superiors sent him to
Rome.
Innocent IV examined closely into his motives in joining the
Friars Preachers, dismissed him with a
blessing, and forbade any further interference with his
vocation. John the Teutonic, fourth master general of the
order, took the young student to
Paris and, according to the majority of the
saint's biographers, to
Cologne, where he arrived in 1244 or 1245, and was placed under
Albertus Magnus, the most renowned professor of the
order. In the schools Thomas's
humility and taciturnity were misinterpreted as signs of dullness, but when
Albert had heard his brilliant defence of a difficult thesis, he exclaimed: "We call this young man a dumb ox, but his bellowing in
doctrine will one day resound throughout the world."
In 1245
Albert was sent to
Paris, and Thomas accompanied him as a student. In 1248 both returned to
Cologne.
Albert had been appointed regent of the new
studium generale, erected that year by the
general chapter of the
order, and Thomas was to teach under him as Bachelor. (On the system of graduation in the thirteenth century see
ORDER OF PREACHERS — II, A, 1, d). During his stay in
Cologne, probably in 1250, he was raised to the
priesthood by
Conrad of Hochstaden,
archbishop of that city. Throughout his busy life, he frequently preached the Word of God, in
Germany,
France, and
Italy. His
sermons were forceful, redolent of
piety, full of solid instruction, abounding in apt citations from the
Scriptures.
In the year 1251 or 1252 the master general of the
order, by the advice of
Albertus Magnus and
Hugo a S. Charo (Hugh of St. Cher), sent Thomas to fill the office of Bachelor (sub-regent) in the
Dominican studium at
Paris. This appointment may be regarded as the beginning of his public career, for his teaching soon attracted the attention both of the professors and of the students. His
duties consisted principally in explaining the "Sentences" of
Peter Lombard, and his commentaries on that text-book of
theology furnished the materials and, in great part, the plan for his chief work, the
"Summa theologica".
In due
time he was ordered to prepare himself to obtain the degree of Doctor in Theology from the
University of Paris, but the conferring of the degree was postponed, owing to a dispute between the
university and the
friars. The conflict, originally a dispute between the
university and the
civic authorities, arose from the
slaying of one of the students and the wounding of three others by the city guard. The
university, jealous of its autonomy, demanded satisfaction, which was refused. The
doctors closed their
schools, solemnly
swore that they would not reopen them until their demands were granted, and decreed that in future no one should be admitted to the degree of Doctor unless he would take an
oath to follow the same line of conduct under similar circumstances. The
Dominicans and
Franciscans, who had continued to teach in their
schools, refused to take the prescribed
oath, and from this there arose a bitter conflict which was at its height when St. Thomas and
St. Bonaventure were ready to be presented for their degrees.
William of St-Amour extended the dispute beyond the original question,
violently attacked the
friars, of whom he was evidently
jealous, and denied their
right to occupy chairs in the
university. Against his book, "De periculis novissimorum temporum" (The Perils of the Last Times), St. Thomas wrote a treatise "Contra impugnantes religionem", an apology for the religious orders (
Touron, op. cit., II, cc. vii sqq.). The book of
William of St-Amour was condemned by
Alexander IV at
Anagni, 5 October, 1256, and the
pope gave orders that the
mendicant friars should be admitted to the doctorate.
About this time St. Thomas also combated a dangerous book, "The Eternal Gospel" (
Touron, op. cit., II, cxii). The
university authorities did not
obey immediately; the influence of
St. Louis IX and eleven
papal Briefs were required before peace was firmly established, and St. Thomas was admitted to the degree of Doctor in Theology. The
date of his promotion, as given by many biographers, was 23 October, 1257. His theme was "The Majesty of Christ". His text, "Thou waterest the hills from thy upper rooms: the earth shall be filled with the fruit of thy works" (
Psalm 103:13), said to have been suggested by a
heavenly visitor, seems to have been
prophetic of his career. A tradition says that
St. Bonaventure and St. Thomas received the doctorate on the same day, and that there was a contest of
humility between the two friends as to which should be promoted first.
From this
time St. Thomas's life may be summed up in a few words:
praying, preaching, teaching, writing, journeying. Men were more anxious to hear him than they had been to hear
Albert, whom St. Thomas surpassed in accuracy, lucidity, brevity, and power of exposition, if not in universality of
knowledge.
Paris claimed him as her own; the
popes wished to have him near them; the
studia of the
order were eager to enjoy the benefit of his teaching; hence we find him successively at
Anagni,
Rome, Bologna,
Orvieto,
Viterbo,
Perugia, in
Paris again, and finally in
Naples, always teaching and writing, living on earth with one passion, an ardent
zeal for the explanation and defence of
Christian truth. So devoted was he to his sacred task that with tears he begged to be excused from accepting the
Archbishopric of
Naples, to which he was appointed by
Clement IV in 1265. Had this appointment been accepted, most probably the
"Summa theologica" would not have been written.
Yielding to the requests of his brethren, he on several occasions took part in the deliberations of the
general chapters of the
order. One of these
chapters was held in
London in 1263. In another held at Valenciennes (1259) he collaborated with
Albertus Magnus and Peter of Tarentasia (afterwards
Pope Innocent V) in formulating a system of studies which is substantially preserved to this day in the
studia generalia of the
Dominican Order (cf. Douais, op. cit.).
It is not surprising to read in the biographies of St. Thomas that he was frequently abstracted and in
ecstasy. Towards the end of his life the
ecstasies became more frequent. On one occasion, at
Naples in 1273, after he had completed his treatise on the
Eucharist, three of the brethren saw him lifted in
ecstasy, and they heard a
voice proceeding from the
crucifix on the altar, saying "Thou hast written well of me, Thomas; what reward wilt thou have?" Thomas replied, "None other than Thyself, Lord" (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 38). Similar declarations are said to have been made at
Orvieto and at
Paris.
On 6 December, 1273, he laid aside his pen and would write no more. That day he experienced an unusually long
ecstasy during
Mass; what was revealed to him we can only surmise from his reply to
Father Reginald, who urged him to continue his writings: "I can do no more. Such secrets have been revealed to me that all I have written now appears to be of little value" (
modica, Prümmer, op. cit., p. 43). The
"Summa theologica" had been completed only as far as the
ninetieth question of the third part (De partibus poenitentiae).
Thomas began his immediate
preparation for death.
Gregory X, having convoked a
general council, to open at
Lyons on 1 May, 1274, invited St. Thomas and
St. Bonaventure to take part in the deliberations, commanding the former to bring to the
council his treatise "Contra errores Graecorum" (Against the Errors of the Greeks). He tried to
obey, setting out on foot in January, 1274, but strength failed him; he fell to the ground near
Terracina, whence he was conducted to the Castle of Maienza, the home of his niece the Countess Francesca Ceccano. The
Cistercian monks of Fossa Nuova pressed him to accept their
hospitality, and he was conveyed to their
monastery, on entering which he whispered to his companion: "This is my rest for ever and ever: here will I dwell, for I have chosen it" (
Psalm 131:14). When
Father Reginald urged him to remain at the castle, the
saint replied: "If the
Lord wishes to take me away, it is better that I be found in a
religious house than in the dwelling of a lay person." The
Cistercians were so kind and attentive that Thomas's
humility was alarmed. "Whence comes this
honour", he exclaimed, "that servants of
God should carry wood for my fire!" At the urgent request of the
monks he dictated a brief
commentary on the
Canticle of Canticles.
The end was near;
extreme unction was administered. When the
Sacred Viaticum was brought into the room he pronounced the following act of
faith:
If in this world there be any knowledge of this sacrament stronger than that of faith, I wish now to use it in affirming that I firmly believe and know as certain that Jesus Christ, True God and True Man, Son of God and Son of the Virgin Mary, is in this Sacrament . . . I receive Thee, the price of my redemption, for Whose love I have watched, studied, and laboured. Thee have I preached; Thee have I taught. Never have I said anything against Thee: if anything was not well said, that is to be attributed to my ignorance. Neither do I wish to be obstinate in my opinions, but if I have written anything erroneous concerning this sacrament or other matters, I submit all to the judgment and correction of the Holy Roman Church, in whose obedience I now pass from this life.
He died on 7 March, 1274. Numerous
miracles attested his
sanctity, and he was
canonized by
John XXII, 18 July, 1323. The
monks of Fossa Nuova were anxious to keep his
sacred remains, but by order of
Urban V the body was given to his
Dominican brethren, and was solemnly translated to the
Dominican church at
Toulouse, 28 January, 1369. A magnificent shrine erected in 1628 was destroyed during the
French Revolution, and the body was removed to the
Church of St. Sernin, where it now reposes in a sarcophagus of gold and silver, which was
solemnly blessed by Cardinal Desprez on 24 July, 1878. The chief bone of his left arm is preserved in the
cathedral of
Naples. The right arm, bestowed on the
University of Paris, and originally kept in the St. Thomas's Chapel of the
Dominican church, is now preserved in the
Dominican Church of S. Maria Sopra Minerva in
Rome, whither it was transferred during the
French Revolution.
A description of the
saint as he appeared in life is given by Calo (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 401), who says that his features corresponded with the greatness of his
soul. He was of lofty stature and of heavy build, but straight and well proportioned. His complexion was "like the colour of new wheat": his head was large and well shaped, and he was slightly bald. All portraits represent him as noble, meditative, gentle yet strong.
St. Pius V proclaimed St. Thomas a
Doctor of the Universal Church in the year 1567. In the
Encyclical "Aeterni Patris", of 4 August, 1879, on the restoration of
Christian philosophy,
Leo XIII declared him "the prince and master of all
Scholastic doctors". The same illustrious
pontiff, by a
Brief dated 4 August, 1880, designated him
patron of all
Catholic universities, academies,
colleges, and
schools throughout the world.
Writings (general remarks)
Although St. Thomas lived less than fifty years, he composed more than sixty works, some of them brief, some very lengthy. This does not necessarily mean that every word in the
authentic works was written by his hand; he was assisted by secretaries, and biographers assure us that he could dictate to several scribes at the same
time. Other works, some of which were composed by his
disciples, have been falsely attributed to him.
In the "Scriptores Ordinis Praedicatorum" (Paris, 1719)
Fr. Echard devotes eighty-six folio pages to St. Thomas's works, the different editions and translations (I, pp. 282-348).
Touron (op. cit., pp. 69 sqq.) says that
manuscript copies were found in nearly all the
libraries of
Europe, and that, after the invention of printing, copies were multiplied rapidly in
Germany,
Italy, and
France, portions of the
"Summa theologica" being one of the first important works printed.
Peter Schöffer, a printer of
Mainz, published the
"Secunda Secundae" in 1467. This is the first known printed copy of any work of St. Thomas. The first complete edition of the
"Summa" was printed at
Basle, in 1485. Many other editions of this and of other works were published in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, especially at
Venice and at
Lyons. The principal editions of all the work (Opera Omnia) were published as follows:
Rome, 1570; Venice, 1594, 1612, 1745; Antwerp, 1612;
Paris, 1660, 1871-80 (
Vives); Parma, 1852-73; Rome, 1882 (the Leonine). The
Roman edition of 1570, called "the Piana", because edited by order of
St. Pius V, was the standard for many years. Besides a carefully revised text it contained the commentaries of
Cardinal Cajetan and the valuable "Tabula Aurea" of
Peter of Bergamo. The
Venetian edition of 1612 was highly prized because the text was accompanied by the
Cajetan-
Porrecta commentaries . . . . The Leonine edition, begun under the patronage of
Leo XIII, now continued under the master general of the
Dominicans, undoubtedly will be the most perfect of all. Critical dissertations on each work will be given, the text will be carefully revised, and all references will be verified. By direction of
Leo XIII (
Motu Proprio, 18 Jan., 1880) the "Summa contra gentiles" will be published with the commentaries of Sylvester Ferrariensis, whilst the commentaries of
Cajetan go with the
"Summa theologica".
The latter has been published, being volumes IV-XII of the edition (last in 1906). St. Thomas's works may be classified as
philosophical,
theological,
scriptural, and
apologetic, or controversial. The division, however, cannot always be rigidly maintained. The
"Summa theologica", e.g., contains much that is
philosophical, whilst the "Summa contra gentiles" is principally, but not exclusively,
philosophical and
apologetic. His
philosophical works are chiefly commentaries on
Aristotle, and his first important
theological writings were commentaries on
Peter Lombard's four books of "Sentences"; but he does not slavishly follow either the
Philosopher or the
Master of the Sentences (on opinions of the
Lombard rejected by
theologians, see
Migne, 1841, edition of the
"Summa" I, p. 451).
Writings (his principal works)
Amongst the works wherein St. Thomas's own
mind and method are shown, the following deserve special mention:
(1) "Quaestiones disputatae" (Disputed Questions) — These were more complete treatises on subjects that had not been fully elucidated in the lecture halls, or concerning which the professor's opinion had been sought. They are very valuable, because in them the author, free from limitations as to
time or
space, freely expresses his
mind and gives all arguments for or against the opinions adopted. These treatises, containing the questions "De potentia", "De malo", "De spirit. creaturis", "De anima", "De unione Verbi Incarnati", "De virt. in communi", "De caritate", "De corr. fraterna", "De spe", "De virt. cardinal.", "De veritate", were often reprinted, e.g. recently by the Association of St. Paul (2 vols., Paris and Fribourg, Switzerland, 1883).
(2) "Quodlibeta" (may be rendered "Various Subjects", or "Free Discussions") — They present questions or arguments proposed and answers given in or outside the lecture halls, chiefly in the more formal
Scholastic exercises, termed
circuli, conclusiones, or
determinationes, which were held once or twice a year.
(3) "De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas" -- This opusculum refuted a very dangerous and widespread
error, viz., that there was but one
soul for all
men, a theory which did away with
individual liberty and responsibility. (
See AVERROES)
(4) "Commentaria in Libros Sententiarum" (mentioned above) -- This with the following work are the immediate forerunners of the
"Summa theologica".
(5) "Summa de veritate catholicae fidei contra gentiles" (Treatise on the Truth of the Catholic Faith, against Unbelievers) -- This work, written at
Rome, 1261-64, was composed at the request of
St. Raymond of Pennafort, who desired to have a
philosophical exposition and defence of the
Christian Faith, to be used against the
Jews and
Moors in
Spain. It is a perfect model of patient and sound
apologetics, showing that no demonstrated
truth (
science) is opposed to
revealed truth (
faith). The best recent editions are those of
Rome, 1878 (by Uccelli), of
Paris and
Fribourg,
Switzerland, 1882, and of
Rome, 1894. It has been translated into many languages. It is divided into four books: I. Of God as He is in Himself; II. Of God the Origin of Creatures; III. Of God the End of Creatures; IV. Of God in His Revelation. It is worthy of remark that the Fathers of the
Vatican Council, treating the
necessity of
revelation (Constitution "Dei Filius", c. 2), employed almost the very words used by St. Thomas in treating that subject in this work (I, cc. iv, V), and in the
"Summa theologica" (
I:1:1).
(6) Three works written by order of Urban IV --
- The "Opusculum contra errores Graecorum" refuted the errors of the Greeks on doctrines in dispute between them and the Roman Church, viz., the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, the primacy of the Roman pontiff, the Holy Eucharist, and purgatory. It was used against the Greeks with telling effect in the Council of Lyons (1274) and in the Council of Florence (1493). In the range of human reasonings on deep subjects there can be found nothing to surpass the sublimity and depth of the argument adduced by St. Thomas to prove that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son (cf. Summa I:36:2); but it must be borne in mind that our Faith is not based on that argument alone.
- "Officium de festo Corporis Christi". Mandonnet (Ecrits, p. 127) declares that it is now established beyond doubt that St. Thomas is the author of the beautiful Office of Corpus Christi, in which solid doctrine, tender piety, and enlightening Scriptural citations are combined, and expressed in language remarkably accurate, beautiful, chaste, and poetic. Here we find the well-known hymns, "Sacris Solemniis", "Pange Lingua" (concluding in the "Tantum Ergo"), "Verbum Supernum" (concluding with the "O Salutaris Hostia") and, in the Mass, the beautiful sequence "Lauda Sion". In the responses of the office, St. Thomas places side by side words of the New Testament affirming the real presence of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament and texts from the Old Testament referring to the types and figures of the Eucharist. Santeuil, a poet of the seventeenth century, said he would give all the verses he had written for the one stanza of the "Verbum Supernum": "Se nascens dedit socium, convescens in edulium: Se moriens in pretium, Se regnans dat in praemium" — "In birth, man's fellow-man was He, His meat, while sitting at the Board: He died his Ransomer to be, He reigns to be his Great Reward" (tr. by Marquis of Bute). Perhaps the gem of the whole office is the antiphon "O Sacrum Convivium" (cf. Conway, "St. Thomas Aquinas", London and New York, 1911, p. 61).
- The "Catena Aurea", though not as original as his other writings, furnishes a striking proof of St. Thomas's prodigious memory and manifests an intimate acquaintance with the Fathers of the Church. The work contains a series of passages selected from the writings of the various Fathers, arranged in such order that the texts cited form a running commentary on the Gospels. The commentary on St. Matthew was dedicated to Urban IV. An English translation of the "Catena Aurea" was edited by John Henry Newman (4 vols., Oxford, 1841-1845; see Vaughan, op. cit., vol. II,) pp. 529 sqq..
(7) The "Summa theologica"-- This work immortalized St. Thomas. The author himself modestly considered it simply a manual of
Christian doctrine for the use of students. In reality it is a complete scientifically arranged exposition of
theology and at the same time a summary of
Christian philosophy (
see SUMMÆ). In the brief
prologue St. Thomas first calls attention to the difficulties experienced by students of
sacred doctrine in his day, the causes assigned being: the multiplication of useless questions, articles, and arguments; the lack of scientific order; frequent repetitions, "which beget disgust and confusion in the
minds of learners". Then he adds: "Wishing to avoid these and similar drawbacks, we shall endeavour, confiding in the Divine assistance, to treat of these things that pertain to
sacred doctrine with brevity and clearness, in so far as the subject to be treated will permit."
In the introductory question,
"On Sacred Doctrine", he
proves that, besides the
knowledge which
reason affords,
Revelation also is
necessary for
salvation first, because without it
men could not
know the
supenatural end to which they must tend by their
voluntary acts; secondly, because, without
Revelation, even the
truths concerning
God which could be
proved by
reason would be
known "only by a few, after a long
time, and with the admixture of many
errors". When
revealed truths have been accepted, the
mind of
man proceeds to explain them and to draw conclusions from them. Hence results
theology, which is a
science, because it proceeds from principles that are
certain (
Answer 2). The object, or subject, of this
science is
God; other things are treated in it only in so far as they relate to
God (
Answer 7).
Reason is used in
theology not to
prove the
truths of
faith, which are accepted on the authority of
God, but to defend, explain, and develop the doctrines revealed (
Answer 8). He thus announces the division of the
"Summa": "Since the chief aim of this
sacred science is to give the
knowledge of
God, not only as He is in Himself, but also as He is the Beginning of all things, and the End of all, especially of rational creatures, we shall treat first of
God; secondly, of the rational creature's advance towards
God (
de motu creaturae rationalis in Deum); thirdly, of
Christ, Who, as
Man, is the way by which we tend to
God."
God in Himself, and as He is the Creator;
God as the End of all things, especially of
man;
God as the Redeemer — these are the leading
ideas, the great headings, under which all that pertains to
theology is contained.
(a) Sub-divisions
The
First Part is divided into three tracts:
The Second Part, On
God as He is in the End of
man, is sometimes called the
Moral Theology of St. Thomas, i.e., his treatise on the end of
man and on
human acts. It is subdivided into two parts, known as the
First Section of the Second (I-II, or 1a 2ae) and the
Second of the Second (II-II, or 2a 2ae).
The
First of the Second. The first five questions are devoted to
proving that
man's last end, his
beatitude, consists in the possession of
God.
Man attains to that end or deviates from it by
human acts, i.e. by free, deliberate acts. Of
human acts he treats, first, in general (in all but the first five questions of the
I-II), secondly, in particular (in the whole of the
II-II). The treatise on
human acts in general is divided into two parts: the first, on
human acts in themselves; the other, on the principles or causes, extrinsic or intrinsic, of those
acts. In these tracts and in the
Second of the Second, St. Thomas, following
Aristotle, gives a perfect description and a wonderfully keen
analysis of the movements of
man's mind and
heart.
The
Second of the Second considers
human acts, i.e., the
virtues and
vices, in particular. In it St. Thomas treats, first, of those things that pertain to all
men, no matter what may be their station in life, and, secondly, of those things that pertain to some
men only. Things that pertain to all
men are reduced to seven headings:
Faith,
Hope, and
Charity;
Prudence,
Justice,
Fortitude, and
Temperance. Under each title, in order to avoid repetitions, St. Thomas treats not only of the
virtue itself, but also of the
vices opposed to it, of the
commandment to practise it, and of the
gift of the
Holy Ghost which corresponds to it. Things pertaining to some
men only are reduced to three headings: the
graces freely given (
gratia gratis datae) to certain individuals for the
good of the
Church, such as the
gifts of
tongues, of
prophecy, of
miracles; the active and the
contemplative life; the particular states of life, and
duties of those who are in different states, especially
bishops and
religious.
The
Third Part treats of
Christ and of the benefits which He has conferred upon
man, hence three tracts: On the
Incarnation, and on what the
Saviour did and suffered; On the
Sacraments, which were instituted by
Christ, and have their efficacy from His
merits and
sufferings; On Eternal Life, i.e., on the end of the world, the
resurrection of bodies,
judgment, the
punishment of the wicked, the
happiness of the just who, through
Christ, attain to
eternal life in
heaven.
Eight years were given to the composition of this work, which was begun at
Rome, where the
First Part and the
First of the Second were written (1265-69). The
Second of the Second, begun in
Rome, was completed in
Paris (1271). In 1272 St. Thomas went to
Naples, where the
Third Part was written, down to the
ninetieth question of the tract On Penance (
see Leonine edition, I, p. xlii). The work has been completed by the addition of a
supplement, drawn from other writings of St. Thomas, attributed by some to
Peter of Auvergne, by others to Henry of Gorkum. These attributions are rejected by the editors of the Leonine edition (XI, pp. viii, xiv, xviii). Mandonnet (op. cit., 153) inclines to the very probable opinion that it was compiled by
Father Reginald de Piperno, the
saint's faithful companion and secretary.
The entire
"Summa" contains 38 Treatises, 612 Questions, subdivided into 3120 articles, in which about 10,000 objections are proposed and answered. So admirably is the promised order preserved that, by reference to the beginning of the Tracts and Questions, one can see at a glance what place it occupies in the general plan, which embraces all that can be
known through
theology of
God, of
man, and of their mutual relations . . . "The whole
Summa is arranged on a uniform plan. Every subject is introduced as a question, and divided into articles. . . . Each article has also a uniform disposition of parts. The topic is introduced as an inquiry for discussion, under the term
Utrum, whether — e.g.
Utrum Deus sit? The objections against the proposed thesis are then stated. These are generally three or four in number, but sometimes extend to seven or more. The conclusion adopted is then introduced by the words,
Respondeo dicendum. At the end of the thesis expounded the objections are answered, under the forms,
ad primum, ad secundum, etc." . . . . The
"Summa" is
Christian doctrine in
scientific form; it is
human reason rendering its highest service in defence and explanation of the
truths of the
Christian religion. It is the answer of the matured and
saintly doctor to the question of his youth: What is
God?
Revelation, made
known in the
Scriptures and by
tradition;
reason and its best results; soundness and fulness of
doctrine, order, conciseness and clearness of expression, effacement of self, the
love of
truth alone, hence a remarkable fairness towards adversaries and calmness in combating their
errors; soberness and soundness of judgment, together with a charmingly tender and enlightened piety — these are all found in this
"Summa" more than in his other writings, more than in the writings of his contemporaries, for "among the
Scholastic doctors, the chief and master of all, towers Thomas Aquinas, who, as
Cajetan observes (In 2am 2ae, Q. 148, a. 4) 'because he most
venerated the ancient
doctors of the Church in a certain way seems to have inherited the
intellect of all'" (
Encyclical,
"Aeterni Patris", of
Leo XIII).
(b) Editions and Translations
It is impossible to mention the various editions of the
"Summa", which has been in constant use for more than seven hundred years. Very few books have been so often republished. The first complete edition, printed at
Basle in 1485, was soon followed by others, e.g., at
Venice in 1505, 1509, 1588, 1594; at
Lyons in 1520, 1541, 1547, 1548, 1581, 1588, 1624,1655; at
Antwerp in 1575. These are enumerated by
Touron (op. cit., p. 692), who says that about the same
time other editions were published at
Rome,
Antwerp,
Rouen,
Paris,
Douai,
Cologne,
Amsterdam, Bologna, etc. The editors of the Leonine edition deem worthy of mention those published at
Paris in 1617, 1638, and 1648, at
Lyons in 1663, 1677, and 1686, and a
Roman edition of 1773 (IV, pp. xi, xii). Of all old editions they consider the most accurate two published at
Padua, one in 1698, the other in 1712, and the
Venice edition of 1755. Of recent editions the best are the following: the Leonine; the
Migne editions (Paris, 1841, 1877); the first volume of the 1841 edition containing the "Libri quatuor sententiarum" of
Peter Lombard; the very practical Faucher edition (5 vols. small quarto, Paris, 1887), dedicated to Cardinal Pecci, enriched with valuable notes; a
Roman edition of 1894. The
"Summa" has been translated into many modern languages as well.
Writings (method and style)
It is not possible to characterize the method of St. Thomas by one word, unless it can be called
eclectic. It is
Aristotelean,
Platonic, and
Socratic; it is
inductive and
deductive; it is
analytic and synthetic. He chose the best that could he find in those who preceded him, carefully sifting the chaff from the wheat, approving what was
true, rejecting the
false. His powers of synthesis were extraordinary. No writer surpassed him in the faculty of expressing in a few well-chosen words the
truth gathered from a multitude of varying and conflicting opinions; and in almost every instance the student sees the
truth and is perfectly satisfied with St. Thomas's summary and statement. Not that he would have students swear by the words of a master. In
philosophy, he says, arguments from authority are of secondary importance;
philosophy does not consist in knowing what
men have said, but in knowing the
truth (In I lib. de Coelo, lect. xxii; II Sent., D. xiv, a. 2, ad 1um). He assigns its proper place to
reason used in
theology (
see below: Influence of St. Thomas), but he keeps it within its own sphere. Against the
Traditionalists the
Holy See has declared that the method used by St. Thomas and
St. Bonaventure does not lead to
Rationalism (
Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1652). Not so bold or original in investigating nature as were
Albertus Magnus and
Roger Bacon, he was, nevertheless, abreast of his
time in
science, and many of his opinions are of
scientific value in the twentieth century. Take, for instance, the following: "In the same plant there is the two-fold virtue, active and passive, though sometimes the active is found in one and the passive in another, so that one plant is said to be masculine and the other feminine" (3 Sent., D. III, Q. ii, a 1).
The style of St. Thomas is a medium between the rough expressiveness of some
Scholastics and the fastidious elegance of
John of Salisbury; it is remarkable for accuracy, brevity, and completeness.
Pope Innocent VI (quoted in the
Encyclical,
"Aeterni Patris", of
Leo XIII) declared that, with the exception of the
canonical writings, the works of St. Thomas surpass all others in "accuracy of expression and
truth of statement" (
habet proprietatem verborum, modum dicendorum, veritatem sententiarum). Great orators, such as
Bossuet,
Lacordaire,
Monsabré, have studied his style, and have been influenced by it, but they could not reproduce it. The same is
true of
theological writers.
Cajetan knew St. Thomas's style better than any of his
disciples, but
Cajetan is beneath his great master in clearness and accuracy of expression, in soberness and solidity of judgment. St. Thomas did not attain to this perfection without an effort. He was a singularly
blessed genius, but he was also an indefatigable worker, and by continued application he reached that stage of perfection in the art of writing where the art disappears. "The author's
manuscript of the
Summa Contra Gentiles is still in great part extant. It is now in the
Vatican Library. The
manuscript consists of strips of parchment, of various shades of colour, contained in an old parchment cover to which they were originally stitched. The writing is in double column, and difficult to decipher, abounding in abbreviations, often passing into a kind of shorthand. Throughout many passages a line is drawn in sign of erasure" (Rickaby, Op. cit., preface: see Ucelli ed., "Sum. cont. gent.", Rome, 1878).
Influences exerted on St. Thomas
How was this great genius formed? The causes that exerted an influence on St. Thomas were of two kinds,
natural and
supernatural.
Natural causes
(1) As a foundation, he "was a witty child, and had received a
good soul" (
Wisdom 8:19). From the beginning he manifested precocious and extraordinary talent and thoughtfulness beyond his years.
(2) His
education was such that great things might have been expected of him. His training at
Monte Cassino, at
Naples,
Paris, and
Cologne was the best that the thirteenth century could give, and that century was the golden age of
education. That it afforded excellent opportunities for forming great
philosophers and
theologians is evident from the character of St. Thomas's contemporaries.
Alexander of Hales,
Albertus Magnus,
St. Bonaventure,
St. Raymond of Pennafort,
Roger Bacon,
Hugo a S. Charo,
Vincent of Beauvais, not to mention scores of others,
prove beyond all
doubt that those were days of really great scholars. (
See Walsh, "The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries", New York, 1907.) The men who trained St. Thomas were his teachers at
Monte Cassino and
Naples, but above all
Albertus Magnus, under whom he studied at
Paris and
Cologne.
(3) The books that exercised the greatest influence on his
mind were the
Bible, the
Decrees of the
councils and of the
popes, the works of the
Fathers, Greek and
Latin, especially of
St. Augustine, the "Sentences" of
Peter Lombard, the writings of the
philosophers, especially of
Plato,
Aristotle, and
Boethius. If from these authors any were to be selected for special mention, undoubtedly they would be
Aristotle,
St. Augustine, and
Peter Lombard. In another sense the writings of St. Thomas were influenced by
Averroes, the chief opponent whom he had to combat in order to defend and make
known the
true Aristotle.
(4) It must be borne in mind that St. Thomas was
blessed with a retentive
memory and great powers of penetration. Father Daniel d'Agusta once pressed him to say what he considered the greatest
grace he had ever received,
sanctifying grace of course excepted. "I think that of having understood whatever I have read", was the reply.
St. Antoninus declared that "he
remembered everything be had read, so that his
mind was like a huge
library" (cf.
Drane, op. cit., p. 427; Vaughan, op. cit., II, p. 567). The bare enumeration of the texts of
Scripture cited in the
"Summa theologica" fills eighty small-print columns in the
Migne edition, and by many it is not unreasonably supposed that he learned the
Sacred Books by heart while he was
imprisoned in the Castle of San Giovanni. Like
St. Dominic he had a special
love for the
Epistles of
St. Paul, on which he wrote
commentaries (recent edition in 2 vols., Turin, 1891).
(5) Deep reverence for the
Faith, as made
known by
tradition, characterizes all his writings. The
consuetudo ecclesiae — the practice of the
Church — should prevail over the authority of any
doctor (
Summa II-II:10:12). In the
"Summa" he quotes from 19
councils, 41
popes, and 52
Fathers of the Church. A slight acquaintance with his writings will show that among the
Fathers his favourite was
St. Augustine (on the
Greek Fathers see Vaughan, op. cit., II, cc. iii sqq.).
(6) With
St. Augustine (
On Christian Doctrine II.40), St. Thomas held that whatever there was of
truth in the writings of
pagan philosophers should be taken from them, as from "unjust possessors", and adapted to the teaching of the
true religion (
Summa I:84:5). In the
"Summa" alone he quotes from the writings of 46
philosophers and poets, his favourite authors being
Aristotle,
Plato, and, among
Christian writers,
Boethius. From
Aristotle he learned that love of order and accuracy of expression which are characteristic of his own works. From
Boethius he learned that
Aristotle's works could be used without detriment to
Christianity. He did not follow
Boethius in his vain attempt to reconcile
Plato and
Aristotle. In general the
Stagirite was his master, but the elevation and grandeur of St. Thomas's conceptions and the majestic dignity of his methods of treatment speak strongly of the sublime
Plato.
Supernatural causes
Even if we do not accept as literally
true the declaration of
John XXII, that St. Thomas wrought as many
miracles as there are articles in the
"Summa", we must, nevertheless, go beyond causes merely natural in attempting to explain his extraordinary career and wonderful writings.
(1) Purity of
mind and body contributes in no small degree to clearness of vision (
see St. Thomas, "Commentaries on I Cor., c. vii", Lesson v). By the gift of
purity,
miraculously granted at the time of the
mystic girdling,
God made Thomas's life
angelic; the perspicacity and depth of his
intellect,
Divine grace aiding, made him the
"Angelic Doctor".
(2) The spirit of
prayer, his great piety and devotion, drew down
blessings on his studies. Explaining why he read, every day, portions of the "Conferences" of
Cassian, he said: "In such reading I find devotion, whence I readily ascend to
contemplation" (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 32). In the lessons of the
Breviary read on his
feast day it is explicitly stated that he never began to study without first invoking the assistance of
God in
prayer; and when he wrestled with obscure passages of the
Scriptures, to
prayer he added
fasting.
(3) Facts narrated by
persons who either
knew St. Thomas in life or wrote at about the
time of his
canonization prove that he received assistance from
heaven. To
Father Reginald he declared that he had learned more in
prayer and
contemplation than he had acquired from
men or books (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 36). These same authors tell of mysterious visitors who came to encourage and enlighten him. The
Blessed Virgin appeared, to assure him that his life and his writings were acceptable to
God, and that he would persevere in his
holy vocation. Sts.
Peter and
Paul came to aid him in interpreting an obscure passage in
Isaias. When
humility caused him to consider himself unworthy of the doctorate, a venerable
religious of his
order (supposed to be
St. Dominic) appeared to encourage him and suggested the text for his opening discourse (Prümmer, op. cit., 29, 37; Tocco in "Acta SS.", VII Mar.; Vaughan, op. cit., II, 91). His
ecstasies have been mentioned. His abstractions in presence of
King Louis IX (St. Louis) and of distinguished visitors are related by all biographers. Hence, even if allowance be made for great enthusiasm on the part of his admirers, we must conclude that his extraordinary learning cannot be attributed to merely natural causes. Of him it may truly be said that he laboured as if all depended on his own efforts and
prayed as if all depended on
God.
Influence of St. Thomas (on sanctity)
The great
Scholastics were
holy as well as learned men.
Alexander of Hales,
St. Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas, and
St. Bonaventure prove that learning does not necessarily dry up devotion. The angelic Thomas and the seraphic
Bonaventure represent the highest types of
Christian scholarship, combining eminent learning with
heroic sanctity.
Cardinal Bessarion called St. Thomas "the most
saintly of learned men and the most learned of
saints". His works breathe the spirit of
God, a tender and enlightened piety, built on a solid foundation, viz. the
knowledge of
God, of
Christ, of
man. The
"Summa theologica" may be made a manual of piety as well as a text-book for the study of
theology (Cf.
Drane, op. cit., p. 446).
St. Francis de Sales,
St. Philip Neri,
St. Charles Borromeo,
St. Vincent Ferrer,
St. Pius V,
St. Antoninus constantly studied St. Thomas. Nothing could be more inspiring than his treatises on
Christ, in His sacred
Person, in His
life and
sufferings. His treatise on the
sacraments, especially on
penance and the
Eucharist, would melt even hardened hearts. He takes pains to explain the various
ceremonies of the Mass ("De ritu Eucharistiae" in
Summa III:83), and no writer has explained more clearly than St. Thomas the effects produced in the
souls of
men by this heavenly Bread (
Summa III:79). The principles recently urged, in regard to
frequent Communion, by
Pius X ("Sacra Trid. Synodus", 1905) are found in St. Thomas (
Summa III:79:8,
III:80:10), although he is not so explicit on this point as he is on the
Communion of children. In the
Decree "Quam Singulari" (1910) the
pope cites St. Thomas, who teaches that, when children begin to have some use of
reason, so that they can conceive some devotion to the
Blessed Sacrament, they may be allowed to communicate (
Summa III:80:9). The spiritual and devotional aspects of St. Thomas's
theology have been pointed out by
Father Contenson, O.P., in his "Theologia mentis et cordis". They are more fully explained by
Father Vallgornera, O.P., in his "Theologia Mystica D. Thomae", wherein the author leads the
soul to
God through the
purgative, illuminative, and unitive ways. The
Encyclical Letter of
Leo XIII on the
Holy Spirit is drawn largely from St. Thomas, and those who have studied the
"Prima Secundae" and the
"Secunda Secundae" know how admirably the
saint explains the gifts and fruits of the
Holy Ghost, as well as the
Beatitudes, and their relations to the different
virtues Nearly all
good spiritual writers seek in St. Thomas definitions of the
virtues which they recommend.
Influence of St. Thomas (on intellectual life)
Since the days of
Aristotle, probably no one man has exercised such a powerful influence on the thinking world as did St. Thomas. His authority was very great during his lifetime. The
popes, the
universities, the
studia of his
order were anxious to profit by his learning and
prudence. Several of his important works were written at the request of others, and his opinion was sought by all classes. On several occasions the
doctors of
Paris referred their disputes to him and gratefully abided by his decision (Vaughan, op. cit., II, 1 p. 544). His principles, made
known by his writings, have continued to influence
men even to this day. This subject cannot be considered in all its aspects, nor is that
necessary. His influence on matters purely
philosophical is fully explained in histories of
philosophy. (
Theologians who followed St. Thomas will be mentioned in
THOMISM. See also
ORDER OF PREACHERS) His paramount importance and influence may be explained by considering him as the
Christian Aristotle, combining in his person the best that the world has
known in
philosophy and
theology. It is in this light that he is proposed as a model by
Leo XIII in the famous
Encyclical "Aeterni Patris". The work of his life may be summed up in two propositions: he established the
true relations between
faith and
reason; he systematized
theology.
(1) Faith and Reason
The principles of St. Thomas on the relations between
faith and
reason were solemnly proclaimed in the
Vatican Council. The second, third, and fourth chapters of the Constitution "Dei Filius" read like pages taken from the works of the
Angelic Doctor. First,
reason alone is not sufficient to guide
men: they need
Revelation; we must carefully distinguish the
truths known by
reason from higher
truths (
mysteries)
known by
Revelation. Secondly,
reason and
Revelation, though distinct, are not opposed to each other. Thirdly,
faith preserves
reason from
error;
reason should do service in the cause of
faith. Fourthly, this service is rendered in three ways:
This is a development of
St. Augustine's famous saying (
On the Holy Trinity XIV.1), that the right use of
reason is "that by which the most wholesome
faith is begotten . . . is nourished, defended, and made strong." These principles are proposed by St. Thomas in many places, especially in the following: "In Boethium, da Trin. Proem.", Q. ii, a. 1; "Sum. cont. gent.", I, cc. iii-ix;
Summa I:1:1,
I:1:5,
I:1:8,
I:32:1,
I:84:5. St. Thomas's services to the
Faith are thus summed up by
Leo XIII in the
Encyclical "Aeterni Patris": "He won this title of distinction for himself: that singlehanded he victoriously combated the
errors of former times, and supplied invincible arms to put to rout those which might in after times spring up. Again, clearly distinguishing, as is fitting,
reason and
faith, he both preserved and had regard for the
rights of each; so much so, indeed, that
reason, borne on the wings of Thomas, can scarcely rise higher, while
faith could scarcely expect more or stronger aids from
reason than those which she has already obtained through Thomas."
St. Thomas did not combat imaginary foes; he attacked living adversaries. The works of
Aristotle had been introduced into
France in faulty translations and with the misleading commentaries of
Jewish and
Moorish philosophers. This gave rise to a flood of
errors which so alarmed the authorities that the reading of
Aristotle's Physics and
Metaphysics was forbidden by
Robert de Courçon in 1210, the
decree being moderated by
Gregory IX in 1231. There crept into the
University of Paris an insidious spirit of irreverence and
Rationalism, represented especially by
Abelard and
Raymond Lullus, which claimed that
reason could
know and
prove all things, even the
mysteries of
Faith. Under the authority of
Averroes dangerous doctrines were propagated, especially two very pernicious
errors: first, that
philosophy and
religion being in different regions, what is
true in
religion might be
false in
philosophy; secondly, that all
men have but one
soul.
Averroes was commonly styled "The Commentator", but St. Thomas says he was "not so much a Peripatetic as a corruptor of Peripatetic
philosophy" (Opusc. de unit. intell.). Applying a principle of
St. Augustine (see
I:84:5), following in the footsteps of
Alexander of Hales and
Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas resolved to take what was
true from the "unjust possessors", in order to press it into the service of
revealed religion. Objections to
Aristotle would cease if the
true Aristotle were made
known; hence his first care was to obtain a new translation of the works of the great
philosopher.
Aristotle was to be purified;
false commentators were to be refuted; the most influential of these was
Averroes, hence St. Thomas is continually rejecting his
false interpretations.
(2) Theology Systematized
The next step was to press
reason into the service of the
Faith, by putting
Christian doctrine into
scientific form.
Scholasticism does not consist, as some
persons imagine, in useless discussions and subtleties, but in this, that it expresses sound
doctrine in language which is accurate, clear, and concise. In the
Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII, citing the words of
Sixtus V (
Bull "Triumphantis", 1588), declares that to the right use of
philosophy we are indebted for "those noble endowments which make
Scholastic theology so formidable to the enemies of
truth", because "that ready coherence of
cause and effect, that order and array of a disciplined army in battle, those clear definitions and distinctions, that strength of argument and those keen discussions by which light is distinguished from darkness, the
true from the
false, expose and lay bare, as it were, the
falsehoods of
heretics wrapped around by a cloud of subterfuges and fallacies". When the great
Scholastics had written, there was light where there had been darkness, there was order where confusion had prevailed. The work of
St. Anselm and of
Peter Lombard was perfected by the
Scholastic theologians. Since their days no substantial improvements have been made in the plan and system of
theology, although the field of
apologetics has been widened, and
positive theology has become more important.
Influence of St. Thomas (his doctrine followed)
Within a short
time after his death the writings of St. Thomas were universally esteemed. The
Dominicans naturally took the lead in following St. Thomas. The
general chapter held in
Paris in 1279 pronounced severe penalties against all who dared to speak irreverently of him or of his writings. The
chapters held in
Paris in 1286, at
Bordeaux in 1287, and at
Lucca in 1288 expressly required the brethren to follow the
doctrine of Thomas, who at that
time had not been
canonized (Const. Ord. Praed., n. 1130). The
University of Paris, on the occasion of Thomas's death, sent an official letter of condolence to the
general chapter of the
Dominicans, declaring that, equally with his brethren, the
university experienced sorrow at the loss of one who was their own by many titles (
see text of letter in Vaughan, op. cit., II, p. 82). In the
Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII mentions the
Universities of
Paris,
Salamanca,
Alcalá,
Douai,
Toulouse,
Louvain,
Padua,
Bologna,
Naples,
Coimbra as "the homes of human wisdom where Thomas reigned supreme, and the
minds of all, of teachers as well as of taught, rested in wonderful harmony under the shield and authority of the
Angelic Doctor". To the list may be added
Lima and
Manila,
Fribourg and
Washington.
Seminaries and
colleges followed the lead of the
universities. The
"Summa" gradually supplanted the "Sentences" as the textbook of
theology.
Minds were formed in accordance with the principles of St. Thomas; he became the great master, exercising a world-wide influence on the opinions of
men and on their writings; for even those who did not adopt all of his conclusions were
obliged to give due consideration to his opinions. It has been estimated that 6000 commentaries on St. Thomas's works have been written. Manuals of
theology and of
philosophy, composed with the
intention of imparting his teaching, translations, and studies, or digests (études), of portions of his works have been published in profusion during the last six hundred years and today his name is in
honour all over the world (
see THOMISM).
In every one of the
general councils held since his death St. Thomas has been singularly
honoured. At the
Council of Lyons his book "Contra errores Graecorum" was used with telling effect against the
Greeks. In later disputes, before and during the
Council of Florence, John of Montenegro, the champion of
Latin orthodoxy, found St. Thomas's works a source of irrefragable arguments. The "Decretum pro Armenis" (Instruction for the Armenians), issued by the authority of that
council, is taken almost verbatim from his treatise, "De fidei articulis et septem sacramentis" (
see Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 695). "In the Councils of
Lyons,
Vienne,
Florence, and the
Vatican", writes
Leo XIII (Encyclical
"Aeterni Patris"), "one might almost say that Thomas took part in and presided over the deliberations and
decrees of the Fathers contending against the
errors of the
Greeks, of
heretics, and
Rationalists, with invincible force and with the happiest results."
But the chief and special
glory of Thomas, one which he has shared with none of the
Catholic doctors, is that the Fathers of
Trent made it part of the order of the
conclave to lay upon the
altar, together with the code of
Sacred Scripture and the
decrees of the
Supreme Pontiffs, the
Summa of Thomas Aquinas, whence to seek counsel,
reason, and inspiration. Greater influence than this no
man could have.
Before this section is closed mention should be made of two books widely known and highly esteemed, which were inspired by and drawn from the writings of St. Thomas. The
Catechism of the Council of Trent, composed by
disciples of the
Angelic Doctor, is in reality a compendium of his
theology, in convenient form for the use of
parish priests.
Dante's "Divina Commedia" has been called "the
Summa of St. Thomas in verse", and commentators trace the great Florentine poet's divisions and descriptions of the
virtues and vices to the
"Secunda Secundae".
Influence of St. Thomas (appreciation)
(1) In the Church
The esteem in which he was held during his life has not been diminished, but rather increased, in the course of the six centuries that have elapsed since his death. The position which he occupies in the
Church is well explained by that great scholar
Leo XIII, in the
Encyclical "Aeterni Patris", recommending the study of
Scholastic philosophy: "It is
known that nearly all the founders and framers of
laws of religious orders commanded their
societies to study and religiously adhere to the teachings of St. Thomas. . . To say nothing of the
family of St. Dominic, which rightly claims this great teacher for its own
glory, the
statutes of the
Benedictines, the
Carmelites, the
Augustinians, the
Society of Jesus, and many others, all testify that they are bound by this
law." Amongst the "many others" the
Servites, the
Passionists, the
Barnabites, and the
Sulpicians have been devoted in an especial manner to the study of St. Thomas. The principal ancient
universities where St. Thomas ruled as the great master have been enumerated above. The
Paris doctors called him the morning star, the luminous sun, the light of the whole
Church. Stephen,
Bishop of
Paris, repressing those who dared to attack the
doctrine of "that most excellent
Doctor, the blessed Thomas", calls him "the great luminary of the
Catholic Church, the precious stone of the
priesthood, the flower of
doctors, and the bright mirror of the
University of Paris" (
Drane, op. cit., p. 431). In the old
Louvain University the
doctors were required to uncover and bow their heads when they pronounced the name of Thomas (Goudin, op. cit., p. 21).
"The
ecumenical councils, where blossoms the flower of all earthly wisdom, have always been careful to hold Thomas Aquinas in singular
honour" (
Leo XIII in
"Aeterni Patris"). This subject has been sufficiently treated above. The "Bullarium Ordinis Praedicatorum", published in 1729-39, gives thirty-eight
Bulls in which eighteen
sovereign pontiffs praised and recommended the
doctrine of St. Thomas (
see also Vaughan, op. cit., II, c. ii; Berthier, op. cit., pp. 7 sqq.). These approbations are recalled and renewed by
Leo XIII, who lays special stress on "the crowning testimony of
Innocent VI: 'His teaching above that of others, the
canons alone excepted, enjoys such an elegance of phraseology, a method of statement, a
truth of proposition, that those who hold it are never found swerving from the path of
truth, and he who dare assail it will always be suspected of
error (ibid.).'"
Leo XIII surpassed his predecessors in admiration of St. Thomas, in whose works he declared a remedy can be found for many
evils that afflict
society (
see Berthier, op. cit., introd.). The notable
Encyclical Letters with which the name of that illustrious
pontiff will always be associated show how he had studied the works of the
Angelic Doctor. This is very noticeable in the
letters on
Christian marriage, the
Christian constitution of states, the
condition of the working classes, and the study of
Holy Scripture.
Pope Pius X, in several
letters, e.g. in the "Pascendi Dominici Gregis" (September, 1907), has insisted on the observance of the recommendations of
Leo XIII concerning the study of St. Thomas. An attempt to give names of
Catholic writers who have expressed their appreciation of St. Thomas and of his influence would be an impossible undertaking; for the list would include nearly all who have written on
philosophy or
theology since the thirteenth century, as well as hundreds of writers on other subjects. Commendations and eulogies are found in the introductory chapters of all
good commentaries. An incomplete list of authors who have collected these testimonies is given by Father Berthier (op. cit., p. 22). . . .
(2) Outside the Church
(a) Anti-Scholastics -- Some
persons have been and are still opposed to everything that comes under the name of
Scholasticism, which they hold to be synonymous with subtleties and useless discussions. From the prologue to the
"Summa" it is clear that St. Thomas was opposed to all that was superfluous and confusing in
Scholastic studies. When people understand what
true Scholasticism means, their objections will cease.
(b) Heretics and Schismatics -- "A last triumph was reserved for this incomparable man — namely, to compel the homage, praise, and admiration of even the very enemies of the
Catholic name" (Leo XIII, ibid.). St. Thomas's
orthodoxy drew upon him the
hatred of all
Greeks who were opposed to
union with Rome. The
united Greeks, however, admire St. Thomas and study his works (
see above Translations of the "Summa"). The leaders of the
sixteenth-century revolt honoured St. Thomas by attacking him,
Luther being particularly
violent in his coarse invectives against the great
doctor. Citing
Bucer's wild boast, "Take away Thomas and I will destroy the
Church",
Leo XIII (ibid.) remarks, "The hope was vain, but the testimony has its value".
Calo, Tocco, and other biographers relate that St. Thomas, travelling from
Rome to
Naples,
converted two celebrated
Jewish rabbis, whom he met at the country house of Cardinal Richard (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 33; Vaughan, op. cit., I, p. 795).
Rabbi Paul of Burgos, in the fifteenth century, was
converted by reading the works of St. Thomas. Theobald Thamer, a disciple of
Melancthon,
abjured his
heresy after he had read the
"Summa", which he intended to refute. The
Calvinist Duperron was
converted in the same way, subsequently becoming
Archbishop of
Sens and a
cardinal (
see Conway, O.P., op. cit., p. 96).
After the bitterness of the first period of
Protestantism had passed away,
Protestants saw the
necessity of retaining many parts of
Catholic philosophy and
theology, and those who came to
know St. Thomas were compelled to admire him. Überweg says "He brought the
Scholastic philosophy to its highest stage of development, by effecting the most perfect accommodation that was possible of the
Aristotelian philosophy to
ecclesiastical orthodoxy" (op. cit., p. 440). R. Seeberg in the "New Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia" (New York, 1911) devotes ten columns to St. Thomas, and says that "at all points he succeeded in upholding the
church doctrine as credible and reasonable" (XI, p. 427).
For many years, especially since the days of
Pusey and
Newman, St. Thomas has been in high repute at
Oxford. Recently the "Summa contra gentiles" was placed on the list of subjects which a candidate may offer in the final honour schools of
Litterae Humaniores at that university (cf. Walsh, op. cit., c. xvii). For several years Father De Groot, O.P., has been the professor of
Scholastic philosophy in the University of
Amsterdam, and courses in
Scholastic philosophy have been established in some of the leading non-Catholic
universities of the
United States.
Anglicans have a deep admiration for St. Thomas. Alfred Mortimer, in the chapter "The Study of Theology" of his work entitled "Catholic Faith and Practice" (2 vols., New York, 1909), regretting that "the
English priest has ordinarily no
scientific acquaintance with the Queen of Sciences", and proposing a remedy, says, "The simplest and most perfect sketch of universal
theology is to be found in the
Summa of St. Thomas" (vol. II, pp. 454, 465).
St. Thomas and modern thought
In the
Syllabus of 1864
Pius IX condemned a proposition in which it was stated that the method and principles of the ancient
Scholastic doctors were not suited to the needs of our times and the progress of
science (
Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1713).
In the
Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII points out the benefits to be derived from "a practical reform of
philosophy by restoring the renowned teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas". He exhorts the
bishops to "restore the golden wisdom of Thomas and to spread it far and wide for the defence and beauty of the
Catholic Faith, for the
good of
society, and for the advantage of all the
sciences". In the pages of the
Encyclical immediately preceding these words he explains why the teaching of St. Thomas would produce such most desirable results: St. Thomas is the great master to explain and defend the
Faith, for his is "the solid
doctrine of the
Fathers and the
Scholastics, who so clearly and forcibly demonstrate the firm foundations of the
Faith, its Divine origin, its
certain truth, the arguments that sustain it, the benefits it has conferred on the
human race, and its perfect accord with
reason, in a manner to satisfy completely
minds open to persuasion, however unwilling and repugnant". The career of St. Thomas would in itself have justified
Leo XIII in assuring
men of the nineteenth century that the
Catholic Church was not opposed to the right use of
reason. The
sociological aspects of St. Thomas are also pointed out: "The teachings of Thomas on the
true meaning of liberty, which at this
time is running into license, on the Divine origin of all authority, on
laws and their force, on the paternal and just rule of princes, on
obedience to the highest powers, on mutual
charity one towards another — on all of these and kindred subjects, have very great and invincible force to overturn those principles of the new order which are well known to be dangerous to the peaceful order of things and to public safety" (ibid.).
The
evils affecting modern
society had been pointed out by the
pope in the
Letter "Inscrutabili" of 21 April, 1878, and in the one on
Socialism,
Communism, and
Nihilism ("The Great Encyclicals of Leo XIII", pp. 9 sqq.; 22 sqq.). How the principles of the
Angelic Doctor will furnish a remedy for these
evils is explained here in a general way, more particularly in the
Letters on the
Christian constitution of states, human liberty, the chief
duties of
Christians as citizens, and on the
conditions of the working classes (ibid., pp. 107, 135, 180, 208).
It is in relation to the
sciences that some
persons doubt the reliability of St. Thomas's writings; and the doubters are thinking of the physical and experimental
sciences, for in
metaphysics the
Scholastics are admitted to be masters.
Leo XIII calls attention to the following
truths: (a) The
Scholastics were not opposed to investigation. Holding as a principle in anthropology "that the human
intelligence is only led to the
knowledge of things without body and
matter by things sensible, they well understood that nothing was of greater use to the
philosopher than diligently to search into the mysteries of
nature, and to be earnest and constant in the study of physical things" (ibid., p. 55). This principle was reduced to practice: St. Thomas,
St. Albertus Magnus,
Roger Bacon, and others "gave large attention to the
knowledge of natural things" (ibid., p. 56). (b) Investigation alone is not sufficient for
true science. "When facts have been established, it is
necessary to rise and apply ourselves to the study of the
nature of corporeal things, to inquire into the
laws which govern them and the principles whence their order and varied unity and mutual attraction in diversity arise" (p. 55).
Will the
scientists of today pretend to be better
reasoners than St. Thomas, or more powerful in synthesis? It is the method and the principles of St. Thomas that
Leo XIII recommends: "If anything is taken up with too great subtlety by the
Scholastic doctors, or too carelessly stated; if there be anything that ill agrees with the discoveries of a later age or, in a word, is improbable in any way, it does not enter into our
mind to propose that for imitation to our age" (p. 56). Just as St. Thomas, in his day, saw a movement towards
Aristotle and
philosophical studies which could not be checked, but could be guided in the right direction and made to serve the cause of
truth, so also,
Leo XIII, seeing in the world of his time a spirit of study and investigation which might be productive of
evil or of
good, had no desire to check it, but resolved to propose a moderator and master who could guide it in the paths of
truth.
No better guide could have been chosen than the clear-minded,
analytic, synthetic, and sympathetic Thomas Aquinas. His extraordinary patience and fairness in dealing with
erring philosophers, his approbation of all that was
true in their writings, his gentleness in condemning what was
false, his clear-sightedness in pointing out the direction to
true knowledge in all its branches, his aptness and accuracy in expressing the
truth — these qualities mark him as a great master not only for the thirteenth century, but for all times. If any
persons are inclined to consider him too subtle, it is because they do not
know how clear, concise, and simple are his definitions and divisions. His two
summae are masterpieces of pedagogy, and mark him as the greatest of human teachers. Moreover, he dealt with
errors similar to many which go under the name of
philosophy or
science in our days. The
Rationalism of
Abelard and others called forth St. Thomas's luminous and everlasting principles on the
true relations of
faith and
reason.
Ontologism was solidly refuted by St. Thomas nearly six centuries before the days of
Malebranche,
Gioberti, and
Ubaghs (
see Summa I:84:5). The
true doctrine on first principles and on
universals, given by him and by the other great
Scholastics, is the best refutation of
Kant's criticism of
metaphysical ideas (see, e.g., "Post. Analyt.", I, lect. xix; "De ente et essentia", c. iv;
Summa I:17:3 corp. and ad 2um;
I:79:3;
I:84:5;
I:84:6 corp and ad 1um;
I:85:2 ad 2um;
I:85:3 ad 1um, ad 4um; Cf. index to "Summa": "Veritas", "Principium", "Universale"). Modern
psychological Pantheism does not differ substantially from the theory of one
soul for all
men asserted by
Averroes (see "De unit. intell." and
Summa I:76:2;
I:79:5). The
Modernistic error, which distinguishes the
Christ of
faith from the
Christ of history, had as its forerunner the
Averroistic principle that a thing might be
true in
philosophy and
false in
religion.
In the
Encyclical "Providentissimus Deus" (18 November, 1893)
Leo XIII draws from St. Thomas's writings the principles and wise rules which should govern
scientific criticism of the
Sacred Books. From the same source recent writers have drawn principles which are most helpful in the solution of questions pertaining to
Spiritism and
Hypnotism. Are we to conclude, then, that St. Thomas's works, as he left them, furnish sufficient instruction for
scientists,
philosophers, and
theologians of our times? By no means.
Vetera novis augere et perficere — "To strengthen and complete the old by aid of the new" — is the motto of the restoration proposed by
Leo XIII. Were St. Thomas living today he would gladly adopt and use all the facts made
known by recent
scientific and historical investigations, but he would carefully weigh all evidence offered in favour of the facts. Positive
theology is more
necessary in our days than it was in the thirteenth century.
Leo XIII calls attention to its
necessity in his
Encyclical, and his admonition is renewed by
Pius X in his
Letter on
Modernism. But both
pontiffs declare that
positive theology must not be extolled to the detriment of
Scholastic theology. In the
Encyclical "Pascendi", prescribing remedies against
Modernism,
Pius X, following in this his illustrious predecessor, gives the first place to "
Scholastic philosophy, especially as it was taught by
Thomas Aquinas"; St. Thomas is still "The Angel of the Schools".
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